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Front Matter

Abstract

Biophilic design can reduce stress, enhance creativity and clarity of thought, improve our well-being and expedite healing; as the world population continues to urbanize, these qualities are ever more important. Theorists, research scientists, and design practitioners have been working for decades to define aspects of nature that most impact our satisfaction with the built environment. "14 Patterns of Biophilic Design" articulates the relationships between nature, human biology and the design of the built environment so that we may experience the human benefits of biophilia in our design applications.

Biophilia in Context looks at the evolution of biophilic design in architecture and planning and presents a framework for relating the human biological science and nature. Design Considerations explores a sampling of factors (e.g., scale, climate, user demographics) that may influence biophilic design decisions to bring greater clarity to why some interventions are replicable and why others may not be. The Patterns lays out a series of tools for understanding design opportunities, including the roots of the science behind each pattern, then metrics, strategies and considerations for how to use each pattern. This paper moves from research on biophilic responses to design application as a way to effectively enhance health and well-being for individuals and society.

Introduction
Biophilia in Context
1. Rediscovering the Intuitively Obvious
2. Defining Nature
3. Nature-Design Relationships
4. Nature-Health Relationships
Design Considerations
1. What is Good Biophilic Design
2. Planning for Implementation
3. Locally Appropriate Design
4. Design Integration
The Patterns
1. Nature in the Space
  1. Visual Connection with Nature
  2. Non-Visual Connection with Nature
  3. Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli
  4. Thermal & Airflow Variability
  5. Presence of Water
  6. Dynamic & Diffuse Light
  7. Connection with Natural Systems
2. Natural Analogues
  1. Biomorphic Forms & Patterns
  2. Material Connection with Nature
  3. Complexity & Order
3. Nature of the Space
  1. Prospect
  2. Refuge
  3. Mystery
  4. Risk/Peril
Final Thoughts
Appendix
1. Endnotes
2. References

Notes

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Reading Now:

1. Introduction
2. Biophilia in Context
- 2.1 Rediscovering the Intuitively Obvious
- 2.2 Defining Nature
- 2.3 Nature-Design Relationships
- 2.4 Nature-Health Relationships
3. Design Considerations
- 3.1 What is Good Biophilic Design
- 3.2 Planning for Implementation
- 3.3 Locally Appropriate Design
- 3.4 Design Integration
4. The Patterns
- 4.1 Nature in the Space
  - [P1] Visual Connection with Nature
  - [P2] Non-Visual Connection with Nature
  - [P3] Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli
  - [P4] Thermal & Airflow Variability
  - [P5] Presence of Water
  - [P6] Dynamic & Diffuse Light
  - [P7] Connection with Natural Systems
- 4.2 Natural Analogues
  - [P8] Biomorphic Forms & Patterns
  - [P9] Material Connection with Nature
  - [P10] Complexity & Order
- 4.3 Nature of the Space
  - [P11] Prospect
  - [P12] Refuge
  - [P13] Mystery
  - [P14] Risk/Peril
- 5. Final Thoughts
- 6. Appendix
  1. 6.1 Endnotes
  2. 6.2 References

1. Introduction

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"In every walk with nature one receives far more than one seeks."

Biophilic design can reduce stress, improve cognitive function and creativity, improve our well-being and expedite healing; as the world population continues to urbanize, these qualities are ever more important. Given how quickly an experience of nature can elicit a restorative response, and the fact that U.S. businesses squander billions of dollars each year on lost productivity due to stress-related illnesses, design that reconnects us with nature – biophilic design – is essential for providing people opportunities to live and work in healthy places and spaces with less stress and greater overall health and well-being.

Biophilia is the humankind's innate biological connection with nature. It helps explain why crackling fires and crashing waves captivate us; why a garden view can enhance our creativity; why shadows and heights instill fascination and fear; and why animal companionship and strolling through a park have restorative, healing effects. Biophilia may also help explain why some urban parks and buildings are preferred over others. For decades, research scientists and design practitioners have been working to define aspects of nature that most impact our satisfaction with the built environment. But how do we move from research to application in a manner that effectively enhances health and well-being, and how should efficacy be judged?

Building upon "The Economics of Biophilia" (1. Terrapin Bright Green, 2012 ), the intent of this paper is to articulate the relationships between nature, science, and the built environment so that we may experience the human benefits of biophilia in our design applications. The paper presents a framework for biophilic design that is reflective of the nature-health relationships most important in the built environment – those that are known to enhance our lives through a connection with nature.

Exterior view with horizon — Image courtesy of COOKFOX Architects.

New research supports measureable, positive impacts of biophilic design on health, strengthening the empirical evidence for the human-nature connection and raising its priority level within both design research and design practice; however, little guidance for implementation exists. This paper is intended to help close the gap between current research and implementation. The intended audiences of this publication are interior designers, architects, landscape architects, urban designers, planners, health professionals, employers and developers, as well as anyone wanting to better understand the patterns of biophilia.

14 Patterns of Biophilic Design

Nature in the Space Patterns
1. Visual Connection with Nature
2. Non-Visual Connection with Nature
3. Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli
4. Thermal & Airflow Variability
5. Presence of Water
6. Dynamic & Diffuse Light
7. Connection with Natural Systems

Natural Analogues Patterns
8. Biomorphic Forms & Patterns
9. Material Connection with Nature
10. Complexity & Order

Nature of the Space Patterns
11. Prospect
12. Refuge
13. Mystery
14. Risk/Peril

This paper puts biophilic design in context with architectural history, health sciences and current architectural practices, and briefly touches on key implementation considerations, then presents biophilic design patterns. The patterns have been developed through extensive interdisciplinary research and are supported by empirical evidence and the work of Christopher Alexander, Judith Heerwagen, Rachel and Stephen Kaplan, Stephen Kellert, Roger Ulrich, and many others. Over 500 publications on biophilic responses have been mined to uncover patterns useful to designers of the built environment. These 14 patterns have a wide range of applications for both interior and exterior environments, and are meant to be flexible and adaptive, allowing for project-appropriate implementation:

Finally, this paper discusses these patterns in a general sense for the purpose of addressing universal issues of human health and well-being (e.g., stress, visual acuity, hormone balance, creativity) within the built environment, rather than program-based or sector-specific space types (e.g., health care facility waiting rooms, elementary school classrooms, or storefront pedestrian promenades). As such, the focus is on patterns in nature known, suggested or theorized to mitigate common stressors or enhance desirable qualities that can be applied across various sectors and scales.

We hope this paper presents the foundation necessary for thinking more critically about the human connection with nature and how biophilic design patterns can be used as a tool for improving health and well-being in the built environment.

2. Biophilia in Context

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" 'This is what I prayed for,' wrote the Roman poet Horace. 'A piece of land – not so very big, with a garden and, near the house, a spring that never fails, and a bit of wood to round it off.'

Those words were set down more than 2000 years ago, around 30 B.C. It is easy to understand the emotion prompting them; we still recognize what Horace meant by a rural garden, a place to take refuge, as he did, from the irritations of city life."

2.1 Rediscovering the Intuitively Obvious

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Nature themes can be found in the earliest human structures: Stylized animals characteristic of the Neolithic Göbekli Tepe; the Egyptian sphinx, or the acanthus leaves adorning Greek temples and their Vitruvian origin story; from the primitive hut to the delicate, leafy filigrees of Rococo design. Representations of animals and plants have long been used for decorative and symbolic ornamentation. Beyond representation, cultures around the world have long brought nature into homes and public spaces. Classic examples include the garden courtyards of the Alhambra in Spain, porcelain fish bowls in ancient China, the aviary in Teotihuacan (ancient Mexico City), bonsai in Japanese homes, papyrus ponds in the homes of Egyptian nobles, the cottage garden in medieval Germany, or the elusive hanging gardens of Babylon.

The consistency of natural themes in historic structures and places suggests that biophilic design is not a new phenomenon; rather, as a field of applied science, it is the codification of history, human intuition and neural sciences showing that connections with nature are vital to maintaining a healthful and vibrant existence as an urban species.

Prior to and even after the Industrial Revolution, the vast majority of humans lived an agrarian existence, living much of their lives among nature. American landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted argued in 1865, that "…the enjoyment of scenery employs the mind without fatigue and yet exercises it, tranquilizes it and yet enlivens it; and thus, through the influence of the mind over the body, gives the effect of refreshing rest and reinvigoration to the whole system" (2. Olmsted, 1865 ). As urban populations grew in the 19th Century, reformers became increasingly concerned with health and sanitation issues such as fire hazards and dysentery. The creation of large public parks became a campaign to improve the health and reduce the stress of urban living.

Artists and designers of the Victorian era, such as influential English painter and art critic, John Ruskin, pushed back against what they saw as the dehumanizing experience of industrial cities. They argued for objects and buildings that reflected the hand of the craftsman and drew from nature for inspiration. In the design of the Science Museum at Oxford, Ruskin is said to have told the masons to use the surrounding countryside for inspiration, and the results can be seen in the inclusion of hand-carved flowers and plants adorning the museum (3. Kellert & Finnegan, 2011 ).

Western attitudes toward nature were shifting in the mid-19th Century; natural landscapes became valid art subjects, as seen in the Hudson River School and the Barbizon School in France. Going to the mountains or seashore for recreation was becoming a growing trend; Winter gardens and conservatories become requisites of wealthy homes in Europe and the United States. Henry David Thoreau built a cabin by Walden Pond in Concord, Massachusetts from which he wrote treatises on a simpler life, connected to nature, which still resonate in the American consciousness. In hospital design, sunlight and a view to nature was believed to be important, as can be seen at St. Elizabeth's in Washington, D.C. Designed in the 1850s to the concepts of Dr. Thomas Kirkbride, who "…believed that the beautiful setting…restored patients to a more natural balance of the senses" (4. Sternberg, 2009 ).

Animal stone carvings at the ancient Göbekli Tepe — Image © Teomancimit.

The play of volumes and glass in Mies Van Der Rohe's Farnsworth House. — Image © Devyn Caldwell/Flickr.

Inspiration from nature was in full view in the Art Nouveau designs of the late 19th Century. Architect Victor Horta's exuberant plant tendrils lacing through buildings in Belgium, the lush flowers that are Louis Comfort Tiffany lamps, and the explicitly biomorphic forms of Antonio Gaudí's buildings all remain strong examples. In Chicago, Louis Sullivan created elaborate ornamentation with leaves and cornices that represent tree branches. His protégé, Frank Lloyd Wright, is part of the group that launched The Prairie School.

Wright abstracted prairie flowers and plants for his art glass windows and ornamentation. Like many in the Craftsman movement, Wright used the grain of wood and texture of brick and stone as a decorative element. Wright also opened up interiors to flow through houses in ways that had not been done before, creating prospect views balanced with intimate refuges. His later designs sometimes include exhilarating spaces, like the balcony cantilevering out over the waterfall at Fallingwater.

European Modernists stripped much ornamentation from their buildings, but, like Wright, used wood grain and the veining of stone as decorative elements and were equally concerned with exploring the relationship of interior to exterior. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's Barcelona Pavilion (built 1929) pushed that concept in the play of volumes and glass. Later, his Farnsworth House (built 1951) defined interior and exterior much more literally, by segregating the elements from the visual connection to nature.

Le Corbusier's Cité Radiant (unbuilt 1924) may have resulted in disastrous urban designs, but by putting towers in a park surrounded by grass and trees, he was trying to provide city dwellers with a connection to nature. As the International Style took root, it spread glass buildings everywhere; unfortunately, the buildings, and particularly the interiors of commercial buildings, increasingly disconnected people from nature.

The term 'biophilia' was first coined by social psychologist Eric Fromm (5. The Heart of Man, 1964 ) and later popularized by biologist Edward Wilson (Biophilia, 1984). The sundry denotations – which have evolved from within the fields of biology and psychology, and been adapted to the fields of neuroscience, endocrinology, architecture and beyond – all relate back to the desire for a (re)connection with nature and natural systems. That we should be genetically predisposed to prefer certain types of nature and natural scenery, specifically the savanna, was posited by Gordon Orians and Judith Heerwagen (6. Savanna Hypothesis, 1986 ), and could theoretically be a contributing motivation for moving to the suburbs, with the suburban lawn being a savanna for everyone.

With the emergence of the green building movement in the early 1990s, linkages were made between improved environmental quality and worker productivity (7. Browning & Romm, 1994 ). While the financial gains due to productivity improvements were considered significant, productivity was identified as a placeholder for health and well-being, which have even broader impact. The healing power of a connection with nature was established by Roger Ulrich's landmark study comparing recovery rates of patients with and without a view to nature (8. Ulrich, 1984 ). An experiment at a new Herman Miller manufacturing facility, designed by William McDonough + Partners in the 1990s, was one of the first to specifically frame the mechanism for gains in productivity to connecting building occupants to nature – phylogenetic or, more familiarly, biophilic design (9. Heerwagen & Hase, 2001 ).

A Louis Comfort Tiffany Lamp with flower pattern design. — Image © Eric Hunt/Flickr.

The translation of biophilia as a hypothesis into design of the built environment was the topic of a 2004 conference and subsequent book on biophilic design (10. Eds., Kellert, Heerwagen & Mador, 2008 ) in which Stephen Kellert identified more than 70 different mechanisms for engendering a biophilic experience, and contributing authors William Browning and Jenifer Seal-Cramer outlined three classifications of user experience: Nature in the Space, Natural Analogues, and Nature of the Space.

The last decade has seen a steady growth in work around and the intersections of neuroscience and architecture, both in research and in practice; even green building standards have begun to incorporate biophilia, predominantly for its contribution to indoor environmental quality and connection to place. Popular texts, such as Last Child in the Woods (11. Louv, 2008 ), Healing Spaces (12. Sternberg, 2009 ), The Shape of Green (13. Hosey, 2012 ), Your Brain on Nature (14. Selhub & Logan, 2012 ), and "The Economics of Biophilia" (15. Terrapin Bright Green, 2012 ), are bringing the conversation mainstream, helping the public grapple with modern society's dependency on technology and persistent disconnect with nature. Most recently, biophilic design is being championed as a complementary strategy for addressing workplace stress, student performance, patient recovery, community cohesiveness and other familiar challenges to health and overall well-being.

2.2 Defining Nature

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Views of what constitutes natural, nature, wild, or beautiful greatly vary. While we have no intention of formalizing an explicit definition, some articulation of what we mean by 'nature' will help give context to practitioners of biophilic design. Simply put, there are two extreme connotations of nature. One is that nature is only that which can be classified as a living organism unaffected by anthropogenic impacts on the environment – a narrow perspective of nature (reminiscent of conventional hands-off environmental preservation) that ultimately no longer exists because nearly everything on Earth has been and will continue to be impacted at least indirectly by humans. Additionally, this idea of nature essentially excludes everything from the sun and moon, your pet fish Nemo, home gardens and urban parks, to humans and the billions of living organisms that make up the biome of the human gut.

Alternatively, it could be argued that everything, including all that humans design and make, is natural and a part of nature because they are each extensions of our phenotype. This perspective inevitably includes everything from paperback books and plastic chairs, to chlorinated swimming pools and asphalt roadways.

As a middle ground, for the purpose of understanding the context of Biophilic Design, we are defining nature as living organisms and non-living components of an ecosystem – inclusive of everything from the sun and moon and seasonal arroyos, to managed forests and urban raingardens, to Nemo's fishbowl habitat.

For added clarity, we are making the distinction that, in the context of health and well-being in the built environment, most nature in modern society is designed, whether deliberately (for function or aesthetic), haphazardly (for navigability or access to resources) or passively (through neglect or hands-off preservation); thus, we refer back to humankind's proclivity for savanna landscapes. Humans create savanna analogues all the time. As designed ecosystems, some, such as the high canopy forests with floral undergrowth maintained by the annual burning practices of the Ojibwe people of North America, are biodiverse, vibrant and ecologically healthy. Others, such as suburban lawns and golf courses, are chemical dependent monocultures; while beautiful, they are not biodiverse, ecologically healthy or resilient.

The key issue is that some designed environments are well-adapted (supporting long term life) and some are not. So while golf courses and suburban lawns may be a savanna analogue, in many cases they require intense inputs of water and fertilizer and thus are unfortunately unsustainable design practices.

2.3 Nature-Design Relationships

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Biophilic design can be organized into three categories – Nature in the Space, Natural Analogues, and Nature of the Space – providing a framework for understanding and enabling thoughtful incorporation of a rich diversity of strategies into the built environment.

Nature in the Space

Canopy trees and water features of the Vatican City gardens. — Image © Valentina A/Flickr.

Nature in the Space addresses the direct, physical and ephemeral presence of nature in a space or place. This includes plant life, water and animals, as well as breezes, sounds, scents and other natural elements. Common examples include potted plants, flowerbeds, bird feeders, butterfly gardens, water features, fountains, aquariums, courtyard gardens and green walls or vegetated roofs. The strongest Nature in the Space experiences are achieved through the creation of meaningful, direct connections with these natural elements, particularly through diversity, movement and multi-sensory interactions.

Nature in the Space encompasses seven biophilic design patterns:

Visual Connection with Nature. A view to elements of nature, living systems and natural processes.
Non-Visual Connection with Nature. Auditory, haptic, olfactory, or gustatory stimuli that engender a deliberate and positive reference to nature, living systems or natural processes.
Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli. Stochastic and ephemeral connections with nature that may be analyzed statistically but may not be predicted precisely.
Thermal & Airflow Variability. Subtle changes in air temperature, relative humidity, airflow across the skin, and surface temperatures that mimic natural environments.
Presence of Water. A condition that enhances the experience of a place through seeing, hearing or touching water.
Dynamic & Diffuse Light. Leverages varying intensities of light and shadow that change over time to create conditions that occur in nature.
Connection with Natural Systems. Awareness of natural processes, especially seasonal and temporal changes characteristic of a healthy ecosystem.

Natural Analogues

Facade renovation of Suites Avenue Aparthotel by Toyo Ito, Barcelona, Spain, is biomorphic in form, while enhancing the Dynamic & Diffuse light and shadows filtering to the interior space. — Image © Aslai/Flickr.

Natural Analogues addresses organic, non-living and indirect evocations of nature. Objects, materials, colors, shapes, sequences and patterns found in nature, manifest as artwork, ornamentation, furniture, décor, and textiles in the built environment. Mimicry of shells and leaves, furniture with organic shapes, and natural materials that have been processed or extensively altered (e.g., wood planks, granite tabletops), each provide an indirect connection with nature: while they are real, they are only analogous of the items in their 'natural' state. The strongest Natural Analogue experiences are achieved by providing information richness in an organized and sometimes evolving manner.

Natural Analogues encompasses three patterns of biophilic design:

Biomorphic Forms & Patterns. Symbolic references to contoured, patterned, textured or numerical arrangements that persist in nature.
Material Connection with Nature. Materials and elements from nature that, through minimal processing, reflect the local ecology or geology and create a distinct sense of place.
Complexity & Order. Rich sensory information that adheres to a spatial hierarchy similar to those encountered in nature.

Nature of the Space

Stepping stones at the Fort Worth Water Garden, Fort Worth, Texas. — Image © JayRaz/Flickr.

Nature of the Space addresses spatial configurations in nature. This includes our innate and learned desire to be able to see beyond our immediate surroundings, our fascination with the slightly dangerous or unknown; obscured views and revelatory moments; and sometimes even phobia-inducing properties when they include a trusted element of safety. The strongest Nature of the Space experiences are achieved through the creation of deliberate and engaging spatial configurations commingled with patterns of Nature in the Space and Natural Analogues.

Nature of the Space encompasses four biophilic design patterns:

Prospect. An unimpeded view over a distance, for surveillance and planning.
Refuge. A place for withdrawal from environmental conditions or the main flow of activity, in which the individual is protected from behind and overhead.
Mystery. The promise of more information, achieved through partially obscured views or other sensory devices that entice the individual to travel deeper into the environment.
Risk/Peril. An identifiable threat coupled with a reliable safeguard.

Periodically throughout this paper, these patterns will be referred to in shorthand by their number 1 to 14 for quick reference. For instance, Presence of Water will appear as [P5] and Prospect will appear as [P11].

2.4 Nature-Health Relationships

Stress & Well-being

For an overview on "well-being" – definitions, metrics, research – see The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

For a background on meanings of stress, see "Mazes and Labyrinths" in Healing Spaces (16. Sternberg, 2009, pp95-124 ).

For a more extensive non-technical discussion on the science of nature's influence on health, happiness and vitality, see Your Brain on Nature (17. Selhub & Logan, 2012 ).

For a more technical introduction to the hormones and neurotransmitters that govern our mind-body systems, see Principles of Neural Science (18. Kandel et al., 2013 ).

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Much of the evidence for biophilia can be linked to research in one or more of three overarching mind-body systems – cognitive, psychological and physiological – that have been explored and verified to varying degrees, in laboratory or field studies, to help explain how people's health and well-being are impacted by their environment. To familiarize the reader with these nature-health relationships, these mind-body systems are discussed here in the briefest sense, and are supported with a table of familiar hormones and neurotransmitters, environmental stressors, and biophilic design strategies.

Cognitive Functionality and Performance

Cognitive functioning encompasses our mental agility and memory, and our ability to think, learn and output either logically or creatively. For instance, directed attention is required for many repetitive tasks, such as routine paperwork, reading and performing calculations or analysis, as well as for operating in highly stimulating environments, as when crossing busy streets. Directed attention is energy intensive, and over time can result in mental fatigue and depleted cognitive resources (e.g.,19. Kellert et al., 2008 ; 20. van den Berg et al., 2007 ).

Strong or routine connections with nature can provide opportunities for mental restoration, during which time our higher cognitive functions can sometimes take a break. As a result, our capacity for performing focused tasks is greater than someone with fatigued cognitive resources.

Psychological Health and Well-being

Psychological responses encompass our adaptability, alertness, attention, concentration, and emotion and mood. This includes responses to nature that impact restoration and stress management. For instance, empirical studies have reported that experiences of natural environments provide greater emotional restoration, with lower instances of tension, anxiety, anger, fatigue, confusion and total mood disturbance than urban environments with limited characteristics of nature (e.g., 21. Alcock et al., 2013 ; 22. Barton & Pretty, 2010 ; 23. Hartig et al., 2003 ; 24. Hartig et al., 1991 ).

Psychological responses can be learned or hereditary, with past experiences, cultural constructs and social norms playing a significant role in the psychological response mechanism.

Physiological Health and Well-being

Physiological responses encompass our aural, musculoskeletal, respiratory, circadian systems and overall physical comfort. Physiological responses triggered by connections with nature include relaxation of muscles, as well as lowering of diastolic blood pressure and stress hormone (i.e., cortisol) levels in the blood stream (e.g., 25. Park et al., 2009 ). Short term stress that increases heart rate and stress hormone levels, such as from encountering an unknown but complex and information-rich space, or looking over a banister to 8 stories below, is suggested to be beneficial to regulating physiological health (26. Kandel et al., 2013 ).

The physiological system needs to be tested regularly, but only enough for the body to remain resilient and adaptive. Physiological responses to environmental stressors can be buffered through design, allowing for the restoration of bodily resources before system damage occurs (27. Steg, 2007 ).

Table 1. Biophilic Design Patterns & Biological Responses

The table illustrates the functions of each of the 14 Patterns in supporting stress reduction, cognitive performance, emotion and mood enhancement and the human body. Patterns that are supported by more rigorous empirical data are marked with up to three asterisks (***), indicating that the quantity and quality of available peer-reviewed evidence is robust and the potential for impact is great, and no asterisk indicates that there is minimal research to support the biological relationship between health and design, but the anecdotal information is compelling and adequate for hypothesizing its potential impact and importance as a unique pattern.

14 Patterns	*	Stress Reduction	Cognitive Performance	Emotion, Mood & Preference
Nature in the Space
Visual Connection with Nature	* * *	Lowered blood pressure and heart rate (28. Brown, Barton & Gladwell, 2013 ; 29. van den Berg, Hartig, & Staats, 2007 ; 30. Tsunetsugu & Miyazaki, 2005 )	Improved mental engagement/ attentiveness (31. Biederman & Vessel, 2006 )	Positively impacted attitude and overall happiness (32. Barton & Pretty, 2010 )
Non-Visual Connection with Nature	* *	Reduced systolic blood pressure and stress hormones (33. Park, Tsunetsugu, Kasetani et al., 2009 ; 34. Hartig, Evans, Jamner et al., 2003 ; 35. Orsega-Smith, Mowen, Payne et al., 2004 ; 36. Ulrich, Simons, Losito et al., 1991 )	Positively impacted cognitive performance (37. Mehta, Zhu & Cheema, 2012 ; 38. Ljungberg, Neely, & Lundström, 2004 )	Perceived improvements in mental health and tranquility (39. Li, Kobayashi, Inagaki et al., 2012 ; 40. Jahncke, et al., 2011 ; 41. Tsunetsugu, Park, & Miyazaki, 2010 ; 42. Kim, Ren, & Fielding, 2007 ; 43. Stigsdotter & Grahn, 2003 )
Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli	* *	Positively impacted heart rate, systolic blood pressure and sympathetic nervous system activity (44. Li, 2009 ; 45. Park et al, 2008 ; 46. Kahn et al., 2008 ; 47. Beauchamp, et al., 2003 ; 48. Ulrich et al., 1991 )	Observed and quantified behavioral measures of attention and exploration (49. Windhager et al., 2011 )
Thermal & Airflow Variability	* *	Positively impacted comfort, well-being and productivity (50. Heerwagen, 2006 ; 51. Tham & Willem, 2005 ; 52. Wigö, 2005 )	Positively impacted concentration(53. Hartig et al., 2003 ; 54. Hartig et al., 1991 ; 55. R. Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989 )	Improved perception of temporal and spatial pleasure (alliesthesia)(56. Parkinson, de Dear & Candido, 2012 ; 57. Zhang, Arens, Huizenga & Han, 2010 ; 58. Arens, Zhang & Huizenga, 2006 ; 59. Zhang, 2003 ; 60. de Dear & Brager, 2002 ; 61. Heschong, 1979 )
Presence of Water	* *	Reduced stress, increased feelings of tranquility, lower heart rate and blood pressure(62. Alvarsson, Wiens, & Nilsson, 2010 ; 63. Pheasant, Fisher, Watts et al., 2010 ; 64. Biederman & Vessel, 2006 )	Improved concentration and memory restoration(65. Alvarsson et al., 2010 ; 66. Biederman & Vessel, 2006 ) Enhanced perception and psychological responsiveness(67. Alvarsson et al., 2010 ; 68. Hunter et al., 2010 )	Observed preferences and positive emotional responses(69. Windhager, 2011 ; 70. Barton & Pretty, 2010 ; 71. White, Smith, Humphryes et al., 2010 ; 72. Karmanov & Hamel, 2008 ; 73. Biederman & Vessel, 2006 ; 74. Heerwagen & Orians, 1993 ; 75. Ruso & Atzwanger, 2003 ; 76. Ulrich, 1983 )
Dynamic & Diffuse Light	* *	Positively impacted circadian system functioning(77. Figueiro, Brons, Plitnick et al., 2011 ; 78. Beckett & Roden, 2009 )Increased visual comfort(79. Elyezadi, 2012 ; 80. Kim & Kim, 2007 )
Connection with Natural Systems				Enhanced positive health responses; Shifted perception of environment(81. Kellert et al., 2008 )
Natural Analogues
Biomorphic Forms & Patterns	*			Observed view preference(82. Vessel, 2012 ; 83. Joye, 2007 )
Material Connection with Nature			Decreased diastolic blood pressure (84. Tsunetsugu, Miyazaki & Sato, 2007 )Improved creative performance (85. Lichtenfeld et al., 2012 )	Improved comfort (86. Tsunetsugu, Miyazaki & Sato, 2007 )
Complexity & Order	* *	Positively impacted perceptual and physiological stress responses (87. Salingaros, 2012 ; 88. Joye, 2007 ; 89. Taylor, 2006 ; 90. S. Kaplan, 1988 )		Observed view preference (91. Salingaros, 2012 ; 92. Hägerhäll, Laike, Taylor et al., 2008 ; 93. Hägerhäll, Purcella, & Taylor, 2004 ; 94. Taylor, 2006 )
Nature of the Space
Prospect	* * *	Reduced stress (95. Grahn & Stigsdotter, 2010 )	Reduced boredom, irritation, fatigue (96. Clearwater & Coss, 1991 )	Improved comfort and perceived safety (97. Herzog & Bryce, 2007 ; 98. Wang & Taylor, 2006 ; 99. Petherick, 2000 )
Refuge	* * *		Improved concentration, attention and perception of safety (100. Grahn & Stigsdotter, 2010 ; 101. Wang & Taylor, 2006 ; 102. Petherick, 2000 ; 103. Ulrich et al., 1993 )
Mystery	* *			Induced strong pleasure response (104. Biederman, 2011 ; 105. Salimpoor, Benovoy, Larcher et al., 2011 ; 106. Ikemi, 2005 ; 107. Blood & Zatorre, 2001 )
Risk/Peril	*			Resulted in strong dopamine or pleasure responses (108. Kohno et al., 2013 ; 109. Wang & Tsien, 2011 ; 110. Zald et al., 2008 )

3. Design Considerations

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"There is rarely a solution that is universal. Rather, the 'correct' solution, in our view, is one that is locally appropriate and responsive to the situation at hand."

3.1 What is Good Biophilic Design?

Biophilic design is the designing for people as a biological organism, respecting the mind-body systems as indicators of health and well-being in the context of what is locally appropriate and responsive. Good biophilic design draws from influential perspectives – health conditions, socio-cultural norms and expectations, past experiences, frequency and duration of the user experience, the many speeds at which it may be encountered, and user perception and processing of the experience – to create spaces that are inspirational, restorative, and healthy, as well as integrative with the functionality of the place and the (urban) ecosystem to which it is applied. Above all, biophilic design must nurture a love of place.

3.2 Planning for Implementation

Increasingly dense urban environments, coupled with rising land values, elevate the importance of biophilic design across a spatial continuum from new and existing buildings, to parks and streetscapes and to campus, urban and regional planning. Each context supports a platform for myriad opportunities for integrative biophilic design, and mainstreaming healthy building practices for people and society. Discussed here in brief are some key perspectives that may help focus the planning and design processes.

Identifying desired responses and outcomes

It is vital for a designer to understand a project's design intent – what are the health or performance priorities of the intended users? To identify design strategies and interventions that restore or enhance well-being, project teams should understand the health baseline or performance needs of the target population. One approach is to ask: what is the most biophilic space we can conceivably design? Another is to ask: how can biophilic design improve performance metrics already used by the client (e.g., company executives, school board, city officials), such as absenteeism, perceived comfort, health care claims, asthma, ticket sales, or test scores.

As many biological responses to design occur together (e.g., reducing physiological indicators of stress and improving overall mood), and there are countless combinations of design patterns and interventions, understanding health related priorities will help focus the design process. Health outcomes associated with biophilic spaces are of interest to building and portfolio managers and human resources administrators, because they inform long term design and measurement best practices, and to planners, policy makers and others because they inform public health policy and urban planning.

Design strategies and interventions

Biophilic design patterns are flexible and replicable strategies for enhancing the user experience that can be implemented under a range of circumstances. Just as lighting design for a classroom will be different than for a spa or home library, biophilic design interventions are based on the needs of a specific population in a particular space, and are likely to be developed from a series of evidence-based biophilic design patterns, ideally with a degree of monitoring and evaluation for efficacy.

For example, a project team may embrace the Visual Connection with Nature pattern to enhance the workplace experience for a series of interior fit-outs for a portfolio of offices. The strategy would be to improve views and bring plants into the space; the interventions may include installing a green wall, orienting desks to maximize views to outdoors, and initiating an employee stipend for desk plants. The detail, location, and the extent to which each of these interventions is implemented will differ for each of the offices in the portfolio.

A project team charged with reducing stress among emergency room nurses at the local hospital may intervene by replacing the abstract art with landscape paintings on the walls of the staffroom and installing a small garden and seating area in the adjacent interior courtyard. While this project also uses the Visual Connection with Nature pattern, the selected interventions specifically target stress reduction for emergency room nurses based on a shared space they utilize routinely.

Diversity of design strategies

Patterns in combination tend to increase the likelihood of health benefits of a space. Incorporating a diverse range of design strategies can accommodate the needs of various user groups from differing cultures and demographics and create an environment that is psycho-physiologically and cognitively restorative. For instance, vegetated spaces can improve an individual's self-esteem and mood, while the presence of water can have a relaxing effect. Adding multiple biophilic strategies for the sake of diversity may backfire unless they are integrative and supporting a unified design intent.

Quality vs. quantity of intervention

When planning for implementation, common questions recur, such as how much is enough and what makes a good design great. A high quality intervention may be defined by the richness of content, user accessibility and, as mentioned above, diversity of strategies. A single high quality intervention can be more effective and have greater restorative potential than several low quality interventions. Climate, cost and other variables may influence or limit feasibility of certain interventions, but should not be considered an obstacle to achieving a high quality application. For example, multiple instances of Prospect with a shallow to moderate depth of field and limited information in the viewshed may not be as effective (at prompting the desired response) as a single powerful instance of Prospect with a moderate to high depth of field and an information-rich viewshed.

Duration of exposure and frequency of access

Identifying the most appropriate duration of exposure to a pattern, or combination of patterns, can be difficult. The ideal exposure time is likely dependent upon the user and desired effect, but as a general guideline, empirical evidence shows that positive emotions, mental restoration and other benefits can occur in as little as 5 to 20 minutes of immersion in nature (111. Brown, Barton & Gladwell, 2013 ; 112. Barton & Pretty, 2010 ; 113. Tsunetsugu & Miyazaki, 2005 ).

When a long duration of exposure is not possible or desired, positioning biophilic design interventions along paths that channel high levels of foot traffic will help improve frequency of access. Consider too that micro-restorative experiences – brief sensory interactions with nature that promote a sense of well-being – while often designed in response to space-restriction, are more readily implementable, replicable and often more accessible than larger interventions; frequent exposure to these small interventions may contribute to a compounded restoration response.

Questions abound on matters of duration of exposure and frequency of access: How persistent is mental restoration over different terms of exposure to nature? Do the improvements continue incrementally with more exposure, or do they plateau? What combinations of design patterns can help optimize a biophilic experience? We hope these questions and others will be explored as research continues on the intersections of neuroscience and design (114. Ryan et al., 2014 ).

3.3 Locally Appropriate Design

No two places are the same; this presents both challenges and opportunities for creativity in the application of biophilic design patterns. Discussed here are some key considerations that may help frame, prioritize, or influence decision making in the design process.

Climate, ecology and the vernacular

Historically, humans have built shelters from locally available materials that reflected the regional ecology; form and function were in response to the topography and climate. Known as vernacular architecture, these buildings and constructed landscapes connect to where they inhabit. Use of local timber, climate responsive design and xeriscaping – using native, drought tolerant plants to create landscape designs that resemble the climate of the surrounding landscape – can each be effective strategies in designing for a resilient, biophilic experience.

Whether rural or urban, not all natural or tempered environments are 'green' in color, nor should they be. Desert species and terrain can be equally important in reinforcing a biophilic connection to place. Some habitats may engender a stronger positive response than others, but a biodiverse savanna-like scene will most likely be preferred over an area abundant yet trackless sand desert, the open ocean, or a dark forest.

Character and density: Rural, suburban and urban environments

In rural environments, human-nature interactions are abundant, and this regular exposure to nature has restorative qualities that we perhaps take for granted. Suburban settings are typically rife with intuitively applied biophilic design; the suburban yard with shade trees, grass, low shrubs, and beds of flowers is essentially an analogue of the African savanna. Porches and balconies offer more than just quaintness and real estate value; many suburban homes and urban rowhouses are raised 18 inches or more, creating a Prospect-Refuge condition with views from windows, stoops and porches. The potential human health benefits are undervalued in high-density settings where residential towers with balconies are both limited and only available to high-paying tenants.

Land in urban environments is limited and at a premium, so it may be unrealistic to replicate features more suitable to a rural environment in terms of scale or abundance. As such, biophilic design strategies will differ depending on the local political climate, zoning, geography, land availability and ownership. For instance, San Francisco, with its high-density urban form, implemented a 'parklet' system, whereby temporary pop-up parks occupy parking spaces for limited periods of time (116. see City of San Francisco, 2013 ). In the narrow streets of Vienna, Austria, restaurants rent parking spaces for the entire summer and set up tables and temporary landscaping to provide outdoor dining. This brings nature into the urban core and within walking distance to a greater number of people, opening up the possibility for micro-restorative experiences.

A different approach to integrating natural systems with urban systems is exhibited in Singapore's 'Skyrise Greenery' program. Given the high levels of development in tropical Singapore over the last 25 years – a period which saw the country's populations grow by 2 million people – the government offered an incentive program to offset the loss of habitat, increase interaction with natural stimuli, and create the 'City within a Garden'. This incentive program offers up to 75% of the costs for installing living roofs and walls (exterior and interior) for new constructions (117. Beatley, 2012 ). What's important is that the strategy be integrative and appropriate to the character and density of the place, and not just another word for ecosystem restoration that does not reflect the human biological relationship with nature.

Park-ing Day Make-shift outdoor seating with temporary landscaping in the streets. — © Paul Krueger/Flickr.

Scale and feasibility

Biophilic design patterns should be scaled to the surrounding environment and to the predicted user population for the space. Patterns can be applied at the scale of a micro-space, a room, a building, a neighborhood or campus, and even an entire district or city. Each of these spaces will present different design challenges depending on the programming, user types and dynamics, climate, culture, and various physical parameters, as well as existing or needed infrastructure.

Size and availability of space are two of the most common factors influencing feasibility of biophilic design patterns. For instance, the Prospect pattern [P11] typically requires significant space. Other patterns, such as Connection with Natural Systems [P7], may be more feasible where there is access to an outdoor space, which is a common challenge in dense urban environments. Yet small scale, micro-restorative Visual [P1] and Non-Visual Connections with Nature [P2] and Presence of Water [P5] can also be very effective. For instance, the psychological benefits of nature actually have been shown to increase with exposure to higher levels of biodiversity (118. Fuller el al., 2007 ), yet these benefits do not necessarily increase with greater natural vegetative area. From this we can derive that small, micro-restorative experiences that are also biodiverse are likely to be particularly effective at engendering a restorative biophilic experience.

Aerial view of the expansive General Motors Tech Center designed by Eero Saarinen. The campus is meant to be experienced at 30 mph along the highway. Image © Donald Harrison/Flickr.

Micro-restorative experiences might include moments of sensory contact with nature through a window, television, image, painting or an aquarium. In urban environments where sensory overload is common (119. Joye, 2007 ), such experiences will be most valued and impactful when situated in locations with high foot traffic, allowing for a greater frequency of access to trigger the desired biophilic response. Traditional Japanese doorway gardens are a perfect example of replicable small-scale interventions.

The speed at which one moves through an environment, whether rural or urban, impacts the level of observable detail and the perceived scale of buildings and spaces. The General Motors "Tech Center" in Warren, Michigan, designed by architect Eero Saarinen in 1949, is designed to be experienced at 30 mph, so for the pedestrian, the scale seems oversized and the spacing of buildings is oddly far apart. This is why stores on along strip malls have large, simple façades and signage, whereas stores within pedestrian zones tends to have smaller and perhaps more intricate signage. Similarly, the landscaping along freeway and highway greenbelts is typically done in large swaths for instant interpretability. In contrast, a pedestrian focused environment will have more fine-grained details in the landscape design to allow for pause, exploration, and a more intimate experience.

Some patterns, such as [P13] Mystery and [P14] Risk/Peril, might not be as feasible or cost-effective in an interior fit-out project because of the amount of space required to effectively implement the pattern. On the other hand, interior fit-outs are an excellent opportunity to introduce Natural Analogue patterns which can be applied to surfaces like walls, floors, and ceilings as well as furniture and window treatments. In addition, not all aspects of biophilia are space dependent. Some patterns (e.g., P2, P4, P6, P7) are more visceral or temporal, requiring little to no floor area, and other patterns (e.g., P8-P10) may simply guide design choices that were already a part of the design process.

Major renovations, new construction and master planning provide more opportunities for incorporating biophilic design patterns that are coupled with systems integration at the building, campus or community scale.

Culture and demographics

Biophobia & Ecophobia

Biophobia is a fear of or aversion to nature or living things ((Ulrich, 1993). Similarly, ecophobia refers to an unreasonable but deeply conditioned disgust for or reaction against natural forms or places.

While biophobia is arguably genetic, to a degree, both phobias are learnt response mechanisms through direct experience, culture and education which, according to Salingaros and Masden (2008), includes architectural education.

The most common biophobic responses are to spiders, snakes, predators, blood, and heights – elements that either directly threaten or signal danger through humanity's evolutionary path. When tempered with an element of safety (e.g., railing or glass window), however, the experience can be transformed into one of curiosity, exhilaration and even a type of mind-body systems recalibration.

Current evolutionary hypotheses and theories state that contemporary landscape preferences are influenced by human evolution, reflecting the innate landscape qualities that enhanced survival for humanity through time. These schools of thought include the biophilia hypothesis (120. Wilson, 1993 and 121. 1984 ), the savanna hypothesis (122. Orians & Heerwagen, 1992 ), the habitat theory and prospect-refuge theory (123. Appleton, 1977 ), and the preference matrix (124. R. Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989 ). While empirical research has shown that there is a degree of universality to landscape preferences among humans, preferences have been modified by cultural influences, experiences and socio-economic factors (125. Tveit et al, 2007 ). Variations in landscape preferences have thus emerged among immigrants, ethnic groups, subcultures, genders, and age groups.

Cultural constructs, social inertia and ecological literacy suffuse differing perspectives on what constitutes natural, nature, wild, or beautiful (126. Tveit et al, 2007 ; 127. Zube & Pitt, 1981 ). Environmental Generational Amnesia and the Ecological Aesthetic Theory help explain how some perspectives may have evolved, and these differences come to bear across countries and regions, as well as among neighborhoods within the same city.

And while ethnicity can play a role in influencing an individual's landscape preferences, cultures and groups across the world utilize landscapes and space in different ways (128. Forsyth & Musacchio, 2005 ). Frequency of use, nature of use, participation rates and purpose of visit all vary drastically between nationalities, cultures and sub-groups. These factors do not mean that certain ethnic groups have a lower appreciation for landscape or a less significant connection with nature. These groups simply utilize and interact with nature in ways that are compatible with their culture and needs. Identifying early on what those needs may be will help define parameters for appropriate design strategies and interventions.

Environmental Generational Amnesia

One of the cultural challenges to upholding that human-nature bond, as well as environmental stewardship, is a phenomenon known as Environmental Generational Amnesia, the shifting baseline for what is considered a normal environmental condition as it continues to degrade. As environmental degradation continues, the baseline continues to shift with each ensuing generation, each perceiving this degraded condition as the norm or non-degraded condition.

This shifting baseline varies across cultures, geographic regions and sub-groups (129. Kahn, 2009 ), influencing environmental stewardship, proximity and access to nature and the biophilic experience. Helping a community to understand what their home looked like when it was a healthy, intact ecosystem is one way of making a Connection with Natural Systems and will hopefully help foster and frame the importance of other areas of environmental quality.

Age and gender are also known to influence biophilic response trends. Women report higher perceived levels of stress than men, yet are less likely than their male counterparts to use available natural outdoor vegetative space during the work day (130. Lottrup, Grahn & Stigsdotter, 2013 ). Of particular interest is that the degree of enhanced immune function due to immersion in nature has been observed to differ between the genders. For instance, following a forest walk, immune function was increased for a period of 30 days in men, but only seven days in women (131. Li, 2010 ), suggesting that interventions targeting female populations in the workplace may need to either prioritize indoor nature experiences or improve accessibility for prolonged outdoor nature experiences.

Youth benefit the most from nature contact in terms of increasing self-esteem. The gains for self-esteem from nature contact are suggested to decline with age; elderly and youth benefit the least in terms of mood enhancement from nature contact (132. Barton & Pretty, 2010 ), yet both groups are equal in perceived restorativeness of natural over urban environments (133. Berto, 2007 ). With age also comes a differing preference in landscape in regards to perceived safety. While an urban woodland may be an enticing place for adventure for a child or teenager, the same condition could be perceived by adults and elderly populations as risky (134. Kopec, 2006 ), which could possibly be overcome by incorporating a Prospect-Refuge condition.

3.4 Design Integration

Interdisciplinary planning and design

Developing an interdisciplinary strategy early on in a project will help ensure cost-effective opportunities are not lost before they are fully considered. Biophilia is but one piece of the puzzle to creating a vibrant, sustainable, and restorative environment. The integration of a multi-disciplinary strategy in the early stages of development – through a stakeholder charrette process or similar – will put team members on equal footing and allow for the identification of potential strengths, challenges and opportunities. In the long run, this approach will improve project satisfaction and save money.

Biophilia as an environmental quality

Environmental quality is an umbrella term that refers to the sum of the properties and characteristics of a specific environment and how it affects human beings and other organisms within its zone of influence.

Biophilia, like air quality, thermal comfort and acoustics, is an essential component of environmental quality that expands the conversation from daylight, materials toxicity, and air, water and soil quality, to include human biological health and well-being.

When integral to the environmental quality discussion, biophilia may also help dissolve the perceived division between human needs and building performance. And we would be remiss not to acknowledge that back-of-house and night shift workers are often the most deprived of biophilic experiences, while they are also the very people responsible for monitoring and maintaining building performance standards. From an architectural perspective, biophilic design patterns have the potential to refocus the designer's attention on the links between people, health, high-performance design and aesthetics.

Multi-platform solutions

Thoughtful applications of biophilic design can create a multi-platform strategy for familiar challenges traditionally associated with building performance such as thermal comfort, acoustics, energy and water management, as well as larger scale issues such as asthma, biodiversity and flood mitigation. We know increased natural air flow can help prevent sick building syndrome; daylighting can cut energy costs in terms of heating and cooling (135. Loftness & Snyder, 2008 ); and increased vegetation can reduce particulate matter in the air, reduce urban heat island effect, improve air infiltration rates and reduce perceived levels of noise pollution (136. Forsyth & Musacchio, 2005 ). These strategies can all be implemented in a manner that achieves a biophilic response for improved performance, health and well-being.

Biophilic design interventions that integrate with other building performance strategies have the potential to improve user experience and overall systems efficiency. Herbert Dreiseitl's design for Prisma in Nürnberg, Germany, is a good example; sculptural water walls serve as both a thermal control device and exposed rainwater conduit, while contributing to the visual and acoustic ambiance of the enclosed garden-like atrium. For the design of the Khoo Teck Puat Hospital in Singapore, architect RMJM met with ecologists and engineers early in the project development process to employ biophilia, ecological conservation and water sensitive urban design to manage rainwater, mitigate loss of biodiversity and create a restorative environment for patients, reaping more benefits for the project than any one of the three teams could have on their own (137. Alexandra Health, 2013 ). The biophilic experiences are more likely to persist long term when they are embedded in the programming and infrastructure of a place.

Controlling for effectiveness

The Ecological Aesthetic Theory

The ecological aesthetic theory proclaims that knowledge about the ecological functions of a landscape will increase preference ratings for that landscape. This theory depends on knowledge as a key driver of landscape preference (138. Nassauer, 1995 ).

As a cultural theory, it can somewhat explain the variations in landscape preferences between social classes. For instance, college students are reported to have more favorable attitudes towards wilderness than secondary school students (139. Balling & Falk, 1982 ).

Preferences for more tamed landscapes, typical of heavily urbanized environments, by lower income groups, is contrasted by the preference for wilder landscapes by higher income groups; it can be deduced that education, more accessible to those with higher socioeconomic status, plays a key role in developing the ecological aesthetic (140. Forsyth & Musacchio, 2005 ).

Given that landscapes and people's needs are in a constant state of flux, it is challenging to ensure the desired health response is always experienced. It is impossible to predict all future human-nature interactions or to ensure that the desired response recurs over a period of time for every user based on a particular strategy or intervention. Indeed, we can assume that efficacy of many biophilic patterns are likely to rise and decline with diurnal and seasonal cycles. For instance, the health benefits of a view to nature may be diminished during winter months or completely negated for night shift workers when the view is shrouded in darkness. However, secondary or seasonal strategies can help maintain balance, such as with indoor interventions, delivering the desired response throughout the year.

User controls for lighting, heating, cooling, ventilation, and even noise can either complement design efforts, or negate them when controls are mismanaged or underutilized – keeping the window blinds closed eliminates a Visual Connection with Nature, and high partitions in an open plan office eliminates opportunities for Prospect and a number of other patterns (141. Urban Green Council, 2013 ).

Behavior change is not often in the purview of the architect, so designing for controllability versus automation or permanency may inform the intervention design process. Maintenance of implemented strategies is also a consideration – will there be someone responsible for cleaning the fish tank and watering the plants? Having trainings and discussions with facility operators and a reference guide indicating appropriate maintenance requirements and parameters will help uphold the intended biophilic experience set forth in the design strategy.

Tracking and measuring efficacy

Reflecting pool at the Pulitzer Foundation for the Arts by Tadao Ando, St. Louis.

Monitoring efficacy of implemented biophilic design patterns for the express purpose of improving health and well-being is a new branch of inquiry. Variability in the built environment, as discussed here, creates a challenging framework for verification; quantitative metrics are often desired but not always appropriate, and the highly invasive nature of some measurement techniques and tools (i.e., fMRI, EEG) adds a layer of complexity and cost. Many of the current techniques used require strict control of variables and cost which tends to limit the size of the test group. There are, however, several new technologies, like wristband monitors, and very light weight headband EEG that may open up new rapid methods of testing; but until those technologies go mainstream, rapid testing can also be done in more rudimentary fashion and with a smaller budget.

As no two interventions will be exactly the same, all results will differ to one degree or another. Culture, climate, age, gender, landscape character, immigrant status, mental health, and genetic predispositions, for example, create a challenging labyrinth of data for comparison. Nevertheless, tracking and monitoring of human biological responses and outcomes triggered by a biophilic pattern is vital in the progress and further development of biophilic design as a best practice.

The science of biophilia is a rapidly evolving field. There is an increasing interest in biophilia research in psychology, neuroscience and endocrinology and our understanding of these patterns will be refined and strengthened as new evidence is gathered. It is entirely possible that additional patterns will emerge over time.

4. The Patterns

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"…Biophilia is not a single instinct but a complex of learning rules that can be teased apart and analyzed individually. The feelings molded by the learning rules fall along several emotional spectra: from attraction to aversion, from awe to indifference, from peacefulness to fear-driven anxiety."

Pattern as Precedent

In the two decades since Wilson published The Biophilia Hypothesis, the body of evidence supporting biophilia has expanded considerably. The biophilic design patterns in this paper have, in the words of Wilson, been "teased apart and analyzed individually" to reveal emotional affiliations Wilson spoke of, as well as other psychophysiological and cognitive relationships with the built environment. The descriptive term 'pattern' is being used for three reasons:

to propose a clear and standardized terminology for biophilic design;
to avoid confusion with multiple terms (metric, attribute, condition, characteristic, typology, etc.) that have been used to explain biophilia and biophilic design; and
to maximize accessibility across disciplines by upholding a familiar language.

The use of spatial patterns is inspired by the precedents of A Pattern Language (142. Alexander, Ishikawa, Silverstein et al., 1977 ), Designing with People in Mind (143. R. Kaplan, S. Kaplan, & Ryan, 1998 ) and Patterns of Home (144. Jacobson, Silverstein & Winslow, 2002 ), as well as lectures and compilations on form, language and complexity (145. Nikos Salingaros, 2000 ; 146. 2013 ). Christopher Alexander brings clarity to this intent with his explanation that patterns

"........describe a problem which occurs over and over again in our environment, and then describes the core of the solution to that problem, in such a way that you can use this solution a million times over, without ever doing it the same way twice."

Alexander's work built on the tradition of pattern books used by designers and builders from the eighteenth century onward, but his work focused on the psychological benefits of patterns and included descriptions of the three dimensional spatial experience, rather than the aesthetic focus of previous pattern books. These fourteen Patterns of Biophilic Design focus on psychological, physiological and cognitive benefits.

Working with Biophilic Patterns

While informed by science, biophilic design patterns are not formulas; they are meant to inform, guide and assist in the design process and should be thought of as another tool in the designer's toolkit. The purpose of defining these patterns is to articulate connections between aspects of the built and natural environments and how people react to and benefit from them.

After each pattern is defined, it is then discussed in terms of the following:

The Experience briefly considers how the pattern might impact the way a space feels;
Roots of the Pattern highlights key scientific evidence that relates human biology to nature and the built environment;
Working with the Pattern highlights design attributes, examples, and considerations; and
Relation to Other Patterns briefly notes opportunities for integrative biophilic design strategies.

Tanner Springs by Atelier Dreisetl demonstrates at least one pattern from each of the three categories of biophilic design. Image © Fred Jala/Flickr.

Just as combinations of culture, demographics, health baselines, and characteristics of the built environment can impact the experience of space differently, so too can each design pattern. A suitable solution results from understanding local conditions and one space's relationship to another, and responding appropriately with a combination of design interventions to suit the unique needs of a space and its intended user group and programs.

Finally, each pattern has been assessed for overall potential impact and the strength of the research on which a pattern is built. Unless otherwise noted, all examples reported are based on data published in a peer-reviewed journal. We acknowledge that some studies are more rigorous than others and that some patterns have a greater body of research to support findings of significance. To help communicate this variability, up to three asterisks are following each pattern name, whereby three asterisks (***) indicates that the quantity and quality of available peer-reviewed evidence is robust and the potential for impact is great, and no asterisk indicates that there is minimal research to support the biological relationship between health and design, but the anecdotal information is adequate for hypothesizing its potential impact and importance as a unique pattern.

The field of biophilic design is constantly evolving, and as Salingaros (2000) explains, new disciplines such as biophilic design must "abstract its patterns as they appear… building its own foundation and logical skeleton, upon which future growth can be supported." As new evidence comes to bear, it is entirely possible that some patterns will be championed over others and that new patterns will emerge. By establishing these 14 basic patterns, we hope to encourage the widespread scientific study, language development, and design implementation of Biophilia.

14 Patterns of Biophilic Design Improving Health and Well-Being in the Built Environment

Nature in the Space

Visual Connection with Nature A view to elements of nature, living systems and natural processes.
Non-Visual Connection with Nature Auditory, haptic, olfactory, or gustatory stimuli that engender a deliberate and positive reference to nature, living systems or natural processes.
Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli Stochastic and ephemeral connections with nature that may be analyzed statistically but may not be predicted precisely.
Thermal & Airflow Variability Subtle changes in air temperature, relative humidity, airflow across the skin, and surface temperatures that mimic natural environments.
Presence of Water A condition that enhances the experience of a place through the seeing, hearing or touching of water.
Dynamic & Diffuse Light Leveraging varying intensities of light and shadow that change over time to create conditions that occur in nature.
Connection with Natural Systems Awareness of natural processes, especially seasonal and temporal changes characteristic of a healthy ecosystem.

Natural Analogues

Biomorphic Forms & Patterns Symbolic references to contoured, patterned, textured or numerical arrangements that persist in nature.
Material Connection with Nature Material and elements from nature that, through minimal processing, reflect the local ecology or geology to create a distinct sense of place.
Complexity & Order Rich sensory information that adheres to a spatial hierarchy similar to those encountered in nature.

Nature of the Space

Prospect An unimpeded view over a distance for surveillance and planning.
Refuge A place for withdrawal, from environmental conditions or the main flow of activity, in which the individual is protected from behind and overhead.
Mystery The promise of more information achieved through partially obscured views or other sensory devices that entice the individual to travel deeper into the environment.
Risk/Peril An identifiable threat coupled with a reliable safeguard.

4.1 Nature in the Space

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The Experience

A space with a good Visual Connection with Nature feels whole, it grabs one's attention and can be stimulating or calming. It can convey a sense of time, weather and other living things.

Roots of the Pattern

Examples

Naturally Occurring:

Natural flow of a body of water
Vegetation, including food bearing plants
Animals, insects
Fossils
Terrain, soil, earth

Simulated or Constructed:

Mechanical flow of a body of water
Koi pond, aquarium
Green wall
Artwork depicting nature scenes
Video depicting nature scenes
Highly designed landscapes

The Visual Connection with Nature pattern has evolved from research on visual preference and responses to views to nature showing reduced stress, more positive emotional functioning, and improved concentration and recovery rates. Stress recovery from visual connections with nature have reportedly been realized through lowered blood pressure and heart rate; reduced attentional fatigue, sadness, anger, and aggression; improved mental engagement/attentiveness, attitude and overall happiness. There is also evidence for stress reduction related to both experiencing real nature and seeing images of nature. Visual access to biodiversity is reportedly more beneficial to our psychological health than access to land area (i.e., quantity of land). [P1 Endnote ]

Visual preference research indicates that the preferred view is looking down a slope to a scene that includes copses of shade trees, flowering plants, calm non-threatening animals, indications of human habitation, and bodies of clean water (Orians & Heerwagen, 1992). This is often difficult to achieve in the built environment, particularly in already dense urban settings, though the psychological benefits of nature are suggested to increase with higher levels of biodiversity and not with an increase in natural vegetative area (Fuller et al., 2007). Positive impact on mood and self-esteem has also been shown to occur most significantly in the first five minutes of experiencing nature, such as through exercise within a green space (Barton & Pretty, 2010). Viewing nature for ten minutes prior to experiencing a mental stressor has shown to stimulate heart rate variability and parasympathetic activity (i.e., regulation of internal organs and glands that support digestion and other activities that occur when the body is at rest) (Brown, Barton & Gladwell, 2013), while viewing a forest scene for 20 minutes after a mental stressor has shown to return cerebral blood flow and brain activity to a relaxed state (Tsunetsugu & Miyazaki, 2005).

Parallax

Autumn wine vineyard near Blenheim, New Zealand. Image © Daniel Pietzsch/Flickr.

Parallax arises with a change in viewpoint occurring due to motion of the observer, of the observed, or of both. The human brain exploits the parallax to gain depth perception and estimate distances to objects.

Viewing scenes of nature stimulates a larger portion of the visual cortex than non-nature scenes, which triggers more pleasure receptors in our brain, leading to prolonged interest and faster stress recovery. For example, heart rate recovery from low-level stress, such as from working in an office environment, has shown to occur 1.6 times faster when the space has a glass window with a nature view, rather than a high-quality simulation (i.e., plasma video) of the same nature view, or no view at all (Kahn et al., 2008). Additionally, repeated viewing of real nature, unlike non-nature, does not significantly diminish the viewer's level of interest over time (Biederman & Vessel, 2006).

Working with the Pattern

The objective of the Visual Connection with Nature pattern is to provide an environment that helps the individual shift focus to relax the eye muscles and temper cognitive fatigue. The effect of an intervention will improve as the quality of a view and the amount of visible biodiversity each increases.

A view to nature through a glass window provides a benefit over a digital screen (e.g., video/plasma tv) of the same view, particularly because there is no parallax shift for people as they move toward or around a video screen (Kahn et al., 2008). This may change as three-dimensional videography advances. Nevertheless, simulated or constructed nature is measurably better at engendering stress reduction than having no visual connection at all.

Design considerations for establishing a strong visual connection with nature:

Relation to other Patterns

Visual Connection with Nature is often paired with a number of other patterns. Common overlaps with the most significant potential impact:

[P2] Non-Visual Connection with Nature
[P3] Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli
[P5] Presence of Water
[P8] Biomorphic Forms & Patterns
[P11] Prospect

Prioritize real nature over simulated nature; and simulated nature over no nature.
Prioritize biodiversity over acreage, area or quantity.
Prioritize or enable exercise opportunities that are in proximity to green space.
Design to support a visual connection that can be experienced for at least 5-20 minutes per day.
Design spatial layouts and furnishings to uphold desired view lines and avoid impeding the visual access when in a seated position.
Visual connections to even small instances of nature can be restorative, and particularly relevant for temporary interventions, or spaces where real estate (floor/ground area, wall space) is limited.
The benefits of viewing real nature may be attenuated by a digital medium, which may be of greatest value to spaces that, due to the nature of its function (e.g., hospital radiation units), cannot easily incorporate real nature or views to the outdoors.

An example of a designed environment with an excellent Visual Connection with Nature is the birch tree and moss garden in the New York Times Building in New York City – a carved out space in the middle of the building by which everyone passes as they enter or leave the building. Adjacent to a restaurant and the main conference rooms, the birch garden is an oasis of calm in the hustle and bustle of Times Square.

The NY Times Building moss and birch garden — The New York Times Building moss and birch garden, by Renzo Piano, acts as an oasis of calm. Image © Hubert J. Steed.